Assessing and Managing Supply Chain Risks

Assessing and Managing Supply Chain Risks 1. Introduction The current trend of outsourcing to low cost countries combined with supplier base reduction has provided significant cost reductions for businesses. However, globalization and implementation of more streamlined supply chains have increased risks for companies when acquiring goods and services needed for their operations. By the term risk is meant a chance of facing undesired consequences such as damage, loss, or injury. More scientifically, risk is defined as the combined probability for an undesired event and the potential damage the event might cause. This definition, or variations of this definition, has been applied by a number of researcher investigating risk (March and Shapira, 1987; Zsidisin, 2003; Spekman and Davis, 2004; Wagner and Bode, 2006; Ritchie and Brindley, 2007). The detrimental effects does not have to be existential to the companies, but typically they cause lost sales, decreased market share and large contractual penalties for the parties affected (Zsidisin, 200 3). A very well-know example of such a detrimental effect is the $400 mill loss suffered by the Swedish cell phone manufacturer Ericsson due to a lightning bolt which struck their sub-supplier of semi-conductors (Latour, 2001). Another example is the battle against the foot-and-mouth disease in the UK agricultural industry during the year 2001. This event temporarily paralyzed the agricultural industry, while the tourism industry suffered great losses. Even luxury car manufacturers such as Volvo and Jaguar were affected since deliveries of quality leather used in various parts in the car compartment were temporarily stopped (Norrman and Jansson, 2004). A general ban on sale and export of British pigs, sheep and cattle was introduced during the outbreak. The tourism industry also suffered as many tourists changed their vacation plans due to transport bans and detergent washing of cars, boots and clothing in affected regions. Similarly, the fruit company Dole lost over $100 million dollars when a hurricane caused massive damage to the area in Central America where their banana suppliers were located (Griffy-Brown, 2003). The outbreak of SARS in Southeast Asia affected various industries such as the electronics industry, retailing, tourism, and the airline industry with losses at the national level stipulated to $38 billion just for Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, and Thailand (Overby et al., 2004). The economic impact of the hurricane Katrina is stipulated to $100-125 billion. More than half of that amount is due to the flooding of New Orleans which paralyzed industry and disrupted normal living conditions in the affected areas (Boettke et al., 2007). However, the most famous of such disruptive events is probably the 9/11 terrorist attack in 2001, which caused immediate financial losses and initiated a massive restructuring of the airline industry (Bhadra and Texter, 2004). The above mentioned examples illustrate that supply chains may not be well prepared for dealing with unanticipated events causing disruption in sub-systems of supply chain networks. The traditional cost-efficiency focus of supply chain systems have led companies to eliminate buffers in the form of inventories and multiple sourcing throughout the network. However, this has also led them to remove mechanisms in the supply chain which previously moderated the effects of undesired, disruptive events in the chain. An alternative approach is to introduce more agility in the supply chain. This approach has successfully been applied as a response to the fact that more and more market places in the twenty-first century require a proliferation of products and services, shorter product life cycles and increased demand for innovation (Narasimhan, Swink and Kim, 2006). In agile supply chains, stock out penalties occur immediately in the form of lost sales and the key performance measure is no lon ger productivity or cost, but customer satisfaction. Traditional stable partnerships are substituted with more fluid clusters where partners enter and leave the network at a more rapid pace. In general, there is also a focus on operator self-management to maximize the actors autonomy (Mason-Jones, Naylor and Towill, 1999). The actors higher level of autonomy in agile supply chains makes them better able to respond to changes in supplies upstream as they have no or few bindings keeping them from changing to alternative sources of supply. However, supply chain companies dealing with commodity goods rather than fashion goods can not necessarily be expected to have the same degree of freedom. Their day-to-day competition would require them to eliminate all forms of waste to remain competitive. Any cost driving measure to mediate or avoid risk such as excess production capacity, excess inventory, and increased supplier base would therefore have to be weighed against the expected costs of future unknown disruptive events. To do this, a proactive identification of potential supply and demand hazards is required at a strategic level. The point is to identify where unanticipated risk events have the biggest impact on the supply chain network, identify the type and number of risks, their associated costs, and as sess alternative counter-measures to improve the resilience of the supply chain. The intent of this conceptual paper is to establish a decision framework in order to aid the proactive identification and management of potential upstream and downstream supply and demand hazards. The framework is developed based on a broad variety of literature integrating multiple perspectives on risk from supply chain management, marketing, and organizations theory. The risk framework presented separates itself from previous efforts in its comprehensiveness, and it has been designed to match the supply chain management framework developed by the Global Supply Chain Forum (GSCF). Previous categorization attempts have usually only presented sub-sets of risk factors and have not paid much attention to how supply chain risks can be dealt with proactively. For instance, Zsidisin (2003) listed a number of useful supply risk characteristics and classified them into characteristics belonging to items, markets and suppliers based on the results of a case study. Item characteristics included impact on profitability and the newness of product application, while market characteristics involved global sourcing, capacity constraints, market price fluctuation, and number of qualified suppliers. Risks associated with suppliers were capacity constraints, inability to reduce costs, incompatible information systems, quality problems, cycle times, and volume and mix requirements changes. However, Zsidisins list of supply risk characteristics did not contain important risk elements such as behavioral appearance of supply chain actors and risks associated with skills and qualities of the individual supply chain organizations, nor did it pay much attention to mitigation of risk events. In addition, the network perspective of supply chain management was not evident in the sense that an event can appear several tiers away from the focal organization but still damage the organization via an unknown dependence. Spekman and Davis (2004) also discussed a typology for categorizing risks. They found that risk lies inherent in every supply chain flow of goods, information, and money and they mentioned many of the same risk characteristics as in Zsidisin (2003). In addition, criminal acts and breach of norms were included as risk elements in the supply chain. However, they did not focus much on actions to minimize or avoid the effects of undesired events. Dealing with risk was eventually reduced to the introduction of buffers or building trust. An exception is made for the management of security risks where they briefly mention the necessity of proactive planning to avoid such risks. Another example is Peck (2005) who reported from an empirical study where the sources and drivers of supply chain vulnerability were investigated. She used the knowledge achieved to develop a multi-level framework for risk analysis and did not put much emphasis on identifying individual risk characteristics and tactics to improve the supply chains resilience. However, the framework illustrated in an intuitive manner how unanticipated and undesirable events at other nodes in a network could influence and cause problems at different levels for a focal company via dependencies. Kleindorfer and Saad (2005) also attempted to provide a conceptual framework to assess risk and introduced three tasks as the foundation of risk management. These were Specifying sources of risk and vulnerabilities, Assessment, and Mitigation. The sources of risk and vulnerability were thereafter divided into operational contingencies, natural hazards, and terrorism and political instability. Kleindorfer and Saad (2005) did not elaborate in much detail on which risks to include in each of these categories, thus from a practical risk assessment point of view, the model becomes less interesting. In a similar vein, Ritchie and Brindley (2007) developed a framework to encapsulate the main strands of supply chain risk management. They distinguished between seven sources of risk, but were not specific about which risks to expect in each category and they were not very detailed in their description of risk avoidance or mediation tactics. In stead, they used their general model as a guide in an exploratory case study where the purpose was to focus on supply chain members degree of awareness of supply chain risks, and how supply chain members identified and responded to identified risks. Ring and Van De Ven (1992) developed a framework for structuring cooperative relationships between organizations based on varying degree of risk and reliance on trust. They based their paper on the assumption that the degree of risk inherent in any transaction depends in the direct proportion to decreases in time, information, and control. Examples provided were commercial risk (risk of not finding a price-performance niche in the market), technological risk (probability of bringing the technology to market), scientific risk (lack of knowledge), engineering uncertainty (will the technology work?), and corporate risk. By corporate risk they referred to the risk of wrong allocation of resources in the organization. However, these types of risk are strongly connected with internal managerial and organizational skills of the focal company, and thus cover only a small portion of the risk concept from a supply chain management perspective. Risks arising from process sharing and network inf licted risks were barely mentioned. In summary, a higher level of precision in supply chain risk assessment frameworks combined with normative guidelines for risk avoidance seems present in extant literature. This call has formally been put forth by Harland, Brenchley and Walker (2003) who provided an easy-to-follow procedure for risk assessment in supply chain networks. They concluded that more managerial guidance is required to support risk management and redesigning of supply strategies to incorporate risk strategies . An attempt to answer this call has been made in the following sections. Mapping of risks in the supply chain has been emphasized combined with a discussion of tactics for risk mitigation and risk avoidance. In essence, this covers steps two to four in the model by Harland, Brenchley and Walker (2003) (Figure 1). Guidance for mapping of the supply chain is the main goal for many of the supply chain management frameworks recently developed. Mapping of the supply chain has therefore only received limited attention in this paper, but references to some well-known supply chain frameworks are provided. Steps five and six have been left for the managers to decide as the strategy formation and implementation would be situation specific and dependent on the outcome of steps one to four. 2. Research method The framework is developed based on a literature review where multiple perspectives on risk from marketing theory, organizations theory, and supply chain management have been integrated into a composite supply chain risk framework. Relevant contributions were identified through library searches and key word searches in Proquest and ScienceDirect databases. Search words were used either alone or in combination to find contributions which could bring added insight about risk from different theoretical perspectives. Key word searches typically included words such as supply chain management, marketing, or organization theory, and words such as risk, framework, uncertainty, vulnerability, resilience, etc. A large number of research contributions were identified from this procedure and contributions were further selected based on a qualitative assessment of the title and abstract of each identified contribution. A guideline for the literature review was to find an answer to the question what do we know from theory which could be relevant for supply chain managers in their efforts to identify and reduce the level of risk in their supply chains? The emphasis on theory was decided since an exploratory empirical investigation would be descriptive of current practices which would not fit with the normative purpose of this investigation. Ex post empirical testing of the entire framework in a single study were also considered difficult to accomplish due to the amount of risk factors included. However, a varying degree of empirical validity is offered through the previous empirical testing performed by the researchers referenced. Some empirical guidance and initial face validity was also provided through discussions with the general director of a sub-supplier to the Norwegian oil and gas industry. 3. Supply chain management and risk The term supply chain management (SCM) has primarily been linked to the study of either internal supply chains integrating internal business functions, the management of two party relationships with tier one suppliers, the management of a chain of businesses or with the management of a network of interconnected businesses (Harland, 1996). Transaction cost analysis (TCA), organization theory (OT) and relational marketing (RM) literature have contributed substantially to the development of SCM research (Croom, Romano and Giannakis, 2000). However, a definition of SCM given by the members of the Global Supply Chain Forum states that Supply chain management is the integration of key business processes from end user through original suppliers that provides products, services, and information that add value for customers and other stakeholders. This distinguishes SCM from the previous mentioned theories since it is the network or chain perspective which is emphasized (Lambert, Cooper and P agh, 1998). 3.1. Mapping the supply chain In order to be able to assess risk in a focal companys supply chain, a thorough insight is required about how the supply chain is configured. A number of frameworks have been developed for the purpose of achieving such knowledge, but Lambert, GarcÃÆ'Â ­a-Dastugue and Croxton (2005) identified only five frameworks which recognized the need to implement business processes among supply chain actors. Such implementation is considered a key area where supply chain management can offer improvement to supply chain actors (Hammer, 2001). However, only two of the five frameworks provided sufficient details to be implemented in practice (Lambert, GarcÃÆ'Â ­a-Dastugue and Croxton, 2005). On the other hand, these two frameworks are both supported by major corporations which indicate a high level of face validity. The first framework is the SCOR model developed by the Supply-Chain Council (SCC, 2008). The SCOR model focuses on five different processes which should eventually be connected across firms in the supply chain. These are the plan, source, make, deliver, and return processes. The second framework was developed by the Global Supply Chain Forum in 1996 and was presented in the literature in 1997 and 1998 (Cooper, Lambert and Pagh, 1997; Lambert, Cooper and Pagh, 1998). Similar to the SCOR model, the GSCF model focuses on a set of distinct business processes to be shared among business organizations. However, a main difference between the two supply chain frameworks is their linkage to corporate strategy. While the SCOR framework emphasizes operations strategy, little reference is made to organizations corporate strategies. The GSCF framework, on the other hand, directly links with the corporate and functional strategies of the companies and thus offers a wider scope (Lambert, GarcÃÆ'Â ­a-Dastugue and Croxton, 2005). Since risk is inherent at every level of an organization, and should be considered also at the strategic level, the GSCF framework was chosen as a starting point for our development of a supply chain risk management framework. 3.2. Identify risk and its location In the GSCF framework, supply chain management consists of three inter-related elements: 1) the structure of the supply chain network, 2) the management components governing the shared supply chain processes, and 3) the different types of processes linked among supply chain actors. Who to link with, which processes to link, and what level of integration and management should be applied are considered key decisions for successful management of supply chains (Lambert, Cooper and Pagh, 1998). From a supply chain risk management perspective, these managerial questions make way for three propositions regarding risk and the focal company. The first proposition concerns the unpredictability of human nature when processes are shared with others. The second concerns the vulnerabilities created because of dependencies between multiple network actors, and the third refers to the skills and qualities of the different supply chain actors organization and management. Stated formally: P1: A focal companys exposure to supply chain risk depends on the level of human behavior unpredictability in the supply chain and the impact such unpredictability can have on the companys supply chain. P2: A focal companys exposure to risk depends on the number and strength of dependencies in its supply chain and the impact an external risk event may have on the company. P3: A focal companys exposure to risk depends on the supply chain actors skills and qualities to identify potential risks in advance and to solve risk situations once they occur. Although they address different aspects of risk to a focal company, the propositions are closely related. For instance, without the existence of network dependencies, behavioral unpredictability at another supply chain actor becomes irrelevant. Similarly, the focal company does not have to worry about the skills and qualities of other supply chain actors because there is always another alternative to select. Also, an increase in the supply chain actors skills and qualities will indirectly reduce the level of human unpredictability since it rules out some of the mistakes humans can make; however, it does not rule out the focal companys uncertainty about other supply chain actors intended strategic actions. The relationship between the propositions has been outlined as arrows in Figure 2. Each category between the arrows refers to a more precise definition of the risks mentioned in the propositions. The categories follow the naming convention in the GSCF framework, and together, they c onstitute a holistic representation of supply chain risks relevant for successful supply chain management. The formal definitions for the three types of supply chain risk in Figure 2 are provided below and explained in the subsequent sections: Supply chain processes risk refers to the perceived risk of other companies in the supply chain behaving intentionally or unintentionally in a manner which could be harmful to the company. Supply chain structure risk is closely linked with the total number and type of dependencies in the network. It is a measure for the level of significant detrimental effects an undesired and unanticipated event can have on a companys supply chain network. This event can occur externally or internally to a local market or industry and affect either a single node or a multitude of nodes simultaneously. Supply chain components risk refers to the technical, managerial and organizational abilities each supply chain actor has developed in order to embrace opportunities, detect and avoid potential supply chain disruptions, and to mediate the effects of a disruption once it has occurred. 3.3. Supply chain processes risk A focal companys exposure to supply chain risk will, according to proposition one, depend on the level of human behavior unpredictability and the impact such unpredictability can have on the companys supply chain. When companies begin to explore the competitive advantage of accessing and managing processes belonging to other companies in the chain, they therefore need to identify how the sharing of a process can change its vulnerability to unanticipated events and agree on strategic actions to reduce the processes vulnerability. The main factors to consider when processes are shared with other actors are shown in Figure 3 and explained below. In general, the sharing of processes across tiers in a network can be problematic since it simultaneously makes the focal company more vulnerable to risk. Under working market conditions, each actor is free to choose its trading partner for every transaction. A natural moderating effect on risk therefore exists since there is no dependency on other specific actors in the network. However, when companies begin to integrate processes, as prescribed by supply chain management literature, they distance themselves from the market by creating lock-in effects with selected partners due to the specificity of tangible and intangible assets deployed. From a transaction cost theory point-of-view (Williamson, 1975, 1985), specific investments in shared processes must be protected against the risk of possible opportunistic behavior from the other actor in each partnership. Opportunistic behavior refers to actors self-interest seeking with guile (Williamson, 1975) where guile means lying, stealing, cheating, and calculated efforts to mislead, distort, disguise, obfuscate, or otherwise confuse (Williamson, 1985). In practice, this type of supplier behavior would materialize in hazards like broken promises, production delays, increased costs, production shortcuts, and masking of inadequate or poor quality (Provan and Skinner, 1989; Wathne and Heide, 2000). Any uncertainty of whether the suppliers behave, or would attempt to behave, opportunistically therefore increases the impression of risk to the actor performing the risk assessment[1]. However, transaction cost theory has been criticized for its assumption of opportunistic decision makers. Critics argue that it is a too simplistic and pessimistic assumption about human behavior, and that opportunism represents the exception rather than the rule (Macneil, 1980; Granovetter, 1985; Chisholm, 1989). John (1984) also argued that undesired attitude such as hard bargaining, intense and frequent disagreements, and similar conflictual behaviors do not constitute opportunism unless an agreement has been reached of not to do so. In addition, even well-meant behavioral actions by one party may have negative effects for another party in the supply chain. The perception of risk linked with human behavior where processes are shared can therefore not be restricted to a matter of opportunism alone, but needs to include any kind of undesired human behavior whether it is opportunistic, undesirable or well-intended, but still potentially harmful. It has been suggested that behavioral uncertainty can be reduced with the introduction of formal and informal safeguards to the relationship. In a successful relationship, relational rules of conduct work to enhance the well-being of the relationship as a whole and take explicit account for the historical and social context within which an exchange takes place (Heide and John, 1992). Flexibility among the parties, solidarity, information exchange, and long-term orientation are norms typically associated with, and referred to, as relational safeguarding mechanisms in contemporary research (Ivens, 2002). The presence of these norms in a relationship has been found to improve the efficiency of relationships and to reduce parties behavioral uncertainty (Heide and John, 1992). Alternatively, ownership, or some form of contractual command-obedience authority structure can be used to protect against inherent behavioral uncertainty. Vertical integration has traditionally been prescribed by transaction cost literature as an answer to handle uncertainty in repeated transactions when there are specific investments involved (Williamson, 1975, 1985). However, Stinchcombe (1985) found that the safeguarding features of hierarchical relationships can be built into contracts as well. These features included authority systems, incentive systems, standard operating procedures, dispute resolution procedures, and non-market internal pricing. It should be noted that advanced pricing mechanisms used can include agreed risk sharing and paying an insurance premium to a third party to protect against the financial consequences of a business interruption (Li and Kouvelis, 1999; Doherty and Schlesinger, 2002). However, a prerequisite for risk transfer mitigation to work is the a bility to clearly define the type, cause and boundaries for when the agreed risk transfer applies. Also, well defined standard operating procedures are particularly important since they indirectly describe the non-conformance cases. Breaches in quality performance or EHS procedures, shipment inaccuracies, delivery times, etc. by the focal company or another party are indications of reduced control over the supply chain. Hence, an increased frequency of such incidents in other nodes in the network will lead to an impression of greater behavioral uncertainty and supply chain risk. The impression of risk when processes are shared would naturally depend on the degree of lock-in which exists between two parties. A second risk factor in supply chain processes risk therefore refers to the criticality of specific nodes in the network (Craighead et al., 2007). More precisely, critical nodes are actors in the supply chain responsible for delivery of critical components or important subsystems where the number of supplier choices is limited. However, a node can be critical even though there may be little dependence in day-to-day operations. The increased popularity of outsourcing to third parties necessarily increases other actors involvement in the companys material and information flow. But, since both information and materials represent a form of capital investment, this also means that other actors in some cases handle large parts of a companys tied-up capital either in the form of information or in the form of goods. This risk is called degree of capital seizure in the framework. For instance, it is generally not very difficult to switch from one supplier of IT-server capacity to another, but the dependence on the supplier of server capacity can prove severe if sloppy routines at the supplier destroy the electronic database stored. A similar logic applies for other actors with control over much of the companys information and material flow. Large distribution centers are one example. A typical risk event would be a fire causing damage to much of the companys goods stored; however, such an event would not be attributable to the processes shared and is therefore not a supply chain process risk. Instead, such a risk event has been characterized as external to the network and described under supply chain structure risk. However, another example would be the distribution centre not informing the focal company of a changed general staff leave. This would be a breach in the supplier relationship management process because it is a deviation from expected service leve ls in that particular period. 3.4. Supply chain structure risk The decision of who to link with in a network requires an explicit knowledge and understanding of the supply chain network configuration. According to proposition two, this includes a thorough comprehension of the risk inflicted upon the company because of dependencies established in relationship with other network actors. Therefore, the supply chain manager needs to assess how vulnerable the company is to unanticipated changes in the network and its exogenous environment. Dependencies are created with individual partners in the network and the level of dependency must therefore be assessed for each node. However, attributes of the network configuration itself may increase or reduce the impression of risk. A field risk category and a network complexity risk category have been created to reflect this duality. Field risk includes risk factors which are exogenous to the network, and not endogenously created as in supply chain process risk. Field risk is assessed for each node, but supply chain structure risk must also take the complexity of the network into consideration. For instance, geographically dense nodes within a network may represent a great risk to a company even though each actor itself may not be very important. This is similar to the Dole example mentioned in the introduction where a hurricane destroyed the banana harvest in the area where Dole had most of its suppliers (Griffy-Brown, 2003). Network complexity risk refers to decision makers perceiving large networks as more uncertain since the involvement of more actors and more people implicitly includes more things which can go wrong (Craighead et al., 2007). This perception naturally becomes even stronger when the number and strength of identified critical nodes under supply chain processes risk is high. However, if a focal company is engaged in several sub-networks of supply and demand, this would moderate the perception of risk similar to the basic idea of diversification in modern portfolio theory. The reason is that the company can rest on several independent business pillars and prosper with the remaining pillars while the problem in the failing supply chain is sorted out. Field risk factors such as currency fluctuations, political or legal changes, environmental, and social risks are external to the supply chain network, and refer to the country or region where suppliers, or clusters of suppliers, are located (JÃÆ'Â ¼tner, Peck and Christopher, 2002). Climate changes, in particular in combination with population growth, should receive attention since such changes may alter and threaten the living conditions in large regions of the world with serious effects on both the supply side and demand side to companies (Gilland, 2002; Yea, 2004; Leroy, 2006). An undesirable side-effect of global trade is that supply chains have become significantly more vulnerable to both organized and unorganized crime. Although cargo thefts have not yet caused major supply chain disruptions, the extent of such crime is steadily increasing and should receive attention from a proactive risk management perspective particularly if shipment of critical components is part of the day-to-day operations (Caton, 2006; Barnett, 2007). Another type of crime is abduction of key personnel for ransom money. Kidnappings are mentally challenging to the abducted and the organizations they work for, and can strain organizational resources for a substantial amount of time after a kidnapping incident. In addition, if a decision to pay ransom money is made, the amount required could be financially problematic to smaller companies. This type of crime has generally been associated with Latin America; however, experts have anticipated that such kidnappings will spread to other parts of the world (O Hare, 1994). Although no scientific follow-up study has been identified

Impact of Cellphones on Education

Impact of Cellphones on Education Should students be allowed to have cellphones in school? Body Paragraph one: Introductory Paragraph: Thesis:   Cell phones can be a great resource in our daily lives, but they should be restricted from use in a learning environment, reminding us that education is first priority. Topic Sentence:   Cheating in school is becoming more common where students are using their phones to take pictures of the exams, store information on their phones, text other students and many other deceitful ways. Support: Students in high school are most likely cheating because they are earning bad grades and they take advantage of their phones to do so. Evidence 1:   On February, 18, 2014, â€Å"More than 200 students were expelled after being caught cheating in the Grade 12 board exam in the past three days.Nearly a dozen parents who helped them use unfair means were also arrested†, an official said on Tuesday. (The Press Trust of India) Elaboration 1:   This real life event shows us how extreme the consequences can get over a cellphone. Not only did the students get expelled, but a dozen of their parents were also arrested. Teachers are trying to figure out a way to terminate cheating, but instead, they need to eliminate the source, being cell phones. Support:   Majority of students in the school have cell phones and more than half of have used a cell phone to cheat Evidence 2: According to a study from the Josephson Institute of Ethics. Among current high school students, 75 percent admit to cheating on tests, homework, and other assignments. Fifty percent have cheated on exams during the past year, and 34 percent have cheated on more than one test. (The Child Study Center) Elaboration 2: It is just unbelievable how many students cheat, it might give them the marks they wanted but what’s the point when you are feeling the guilt 24/7. Students are given cellphones by their parents and surely the reason is not so they can use it to cheat. Support: Cheating is like a drug, the more you do it and get away with it the more you want to do it. Evidence 3: â€Å"It’s tempting to cheat† said Kids Health (Kids Health). Believe it or not but some students actually think that cheating is perfectly ok, but once someone starts to cheat and feel comfortable doing so it can easily become a bad habit. Cheating is not a habit you want to carry on into college/university, if you are caught cheating there you will be expelled on the spot. Elaboration 3: In the long run when you end up in college or university, you need to realize that the staff there doesn’t tolerate these foolish acts. If someone is caught cheating in university or college it will result in expulsion making it highly unlikely to get into another university/college, possibly ruining your future. Concluding Sentence: Cheating can become a very bad habit, but by removing cellphones students won’t have the ability to cheat as they use cellphones to do so. Cheating’s dangerous and can potentially ruin ones future and by removing cellphones we are saving their future. Transition: Distractions in classes are yet another negative aspect on cellphones that can negatively affect a student’s grade. Body Paragraph Two: Topic Sentence (Claim 2): Students are supposed to be coming to school for education but when they are allowed to have cellphones with them it creates an unwanted distraction as they are tempted to play games, surf the web and mainly text friends and/or family. If students are being distracted on their phones in the class they simply aren’t learning. Support: Distractions in class are similar to distractions on the road, when you have a cell phone on the road your full attention isn’t on the road as in school your full attention isn’t in the class. Evidence 1: Most teachers want students to achieve high marks in their classes but it’s not possible when they are contradicting themselves by allowing cell phones in school/classrooms. When teachers are giving the students lectures or teaching an important lesson it is very easy to lose focus with a cell phone right by your side. Elaboration 1: It’s difficult to achieve high grades with cellphones. Cell phones are being a constant distraction all the time and if schools banned cell phones every student would be getting higher grades rather than before when they had a cellphone. Support: Cell phones are acting as students best friends as they spend most all their time on their phones than pay attention in class. Evidence 2: Mobile technology consultant Tomi Ahonen analysed a study commissioned by Nokia. They found that in users aged 13 – 18 check their smartphones almost 150 times a day. Students also spend a lot of their time in school checking social media websites where they chat with friends and play games. (Spencer) Elaboration 2: Education is first priority, especially when in school. If the average student is receive 150 texts a day that means they are texting at least some of that in school. When students are texting in school or chatting on social media websites it makes it very hard for them to focus in class, especially when they are playing games, it causes other students sitting around the person on the phone to watch him/her also distracting other classmates. Support: Students wish to achieve high grades but with a cell phone many are tempted to check it every few minutes distracting them from the class. Evidence 3: Health and human services researchers at Kent State University, in Ohio, surveyed about 500 undergraduate majors across a range of majors. One of their findings was that students with more cell phones had lower grade averages. (Berger) Elaboration 3: Almost every student has a cell phone and they are all constantly on it. If students have lower grade averages because they have cell phones it means they are on it in school during classes causing a distraction to themselves, therefore providing them with lower grades which is not beneficial to anyone. Concluding Sentence: Excluding cell phones from school will help students’ marks by allowing them to pay attention resulting in good grades. Transition: Distraction isn’t the only con about cellphones. Cyber Bullying is a major worldwide issue contributed by cellphones as well. Body Paragraph Three: Topic Sentence (Claim 3): Cyber Bullying has become a well-known, widespread teen issue around the world. Billions of people are active on social websites and are texting each month allowing students to contact each other from anywhere. When students have cell phones in school they can send anything they want to anyone they want with a touch of a button. Support: Cell phones are great tools but when put in the wrong hand they can help assist in breaking down a student to tears. Evidence 1: According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics and the U.S Health Department roughly 85 percent of teens are bullied in school and 25 percent of those teens are repeatedly bullied using cellphones. 50 percent are too shy to talk about it. (U.S Health Department) Elaboration 1: Bullying is a very serious issue and by allowing cell phones in schools, teachers are also â€Å"allowing† bullying to occur. If cell phones were not allowed in school it would help over 50 percent of bullied teens to be safe from cyber bullies. Support: Cell phones are so strong that they can be used to bully someone to the extent where the person cannot take it anymore. Evidence 2: On October 12, 2012 occurred a very sad and devastating incident where a Grade 10 student named Amanda Todd committed suicide. It started off when a stranger met her online convincing her to strip. Later on Amanda switched schools and found out he had created a Facebook account with the profile picture of her bare breasts. She then tried to kill herself by drinking bleach. Students at her school would bully her and she couldn’t take it anymore resulting in her death. (Canadian Press) Elaboration 2: Amanda had a happy life until she met someone online and started receiving threats from students on her phone at school. In the end she took her life. Cell phones were used by harassing Amanda and threatening her during school. If cell phones were not allowed at school it just might have saved her life. Support: Sadly many people around the word end up changing schools and unintentionally ending relationships with friends due to cell phones accompanying bullying. Evidence 3: Ashley was yet another young girl enjoying school when unknowingly one of her friends started to take pictures of her using her cell phone. The images were then part of a fake profile on a social media website of Ashley with her private information. Ashley later found out about the profile. The girl had full control of Ashley’s â€Å"profile† and Ashley couldn’t do anything about it. Ashley was later on forced to switch schools. Elaboration 3: Cell phones can be very powerful tools and in Ashley’s case very dangerous ones. If cell phones were banned at schools the girl could never have taken a picture of Ashley. Restated Thesis: Cell phones should not be part of the learning environment as they bring harm to the school and the students. Students take advantage of their phones in negative ways such as cheating on tests, bullying others and it just creates a distraction in class affecting their grades. Works Cited .More than 200 Students Caught Cheating in Bihar. Press Trust of India. N.p., 14 January 2014. Web. 22 Feb 2014. . The Child Study Center.Cheating in School, How it happens. Josephine Institute. N.p., 21 August 2011. Web. 22 Feb 2014. . U.S Health Department,, Bureau of Justice Statistics, and Cyberbullying Research Center. Cyber/Bullying Statistics. .N.p., 5 July 2013. Web. 23 Feb 2014. . Spencer, Ben.Mobile users can’t leave their phones without checking it for 6 minutes. N.p., 11 February 2013. Web. 23 Feb 2014. . Berger, Eric.Students who use cellphones more get lower grades. N.p., 16 Dec 2013. Web. 23 Feb 2014. . Canadian Press. Amanda Todd commits suicide N.p., 12 October 2012. Web. 22 Feb 2014. . Kids Health. Cheating.†. N.p. Web. 24 Feb 2014.

Biblical and Classical Interpretations of the Witches of The Scarlet Letter :: Scarlet Letter essays

Biblical and Classical Interpretations of the Witches of The Scarlet Letter      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The theme of witchcraft is woven into the fabric of The Scarlet Letter. The introductory "Custom-House" chapter includes an appeal by the author to remove any witches' curses on his family. Once he takes us back to the Boston of the 1640's, he frequently hints about the cohorts of the "Black Man" who meet in the woods beyond the town. But if the reader understands the classical meaning of the word witchcraft such as used in the Bible and other classical works, then we understand that Hawthorne had something more in mind than the sad cultists like Mistress Hibbins. The real witch of The Scarlet Letter was a far more sinister character, a personality who makes a significant statement about the nature of man.    The Greek New Testament and Septuagint on Witchcraft Witchcraft occurs only once in the King James New Testament and sorcery twice--Galatians 5:20, Revelation 9:21 and 18:23. The word in the Greek New Testament in all three cases is pharmakeia, derived from the word pharmakon ("drug"), the source of the English word pharmacy and its cognates. The standard koinà © Greek-English Lexicon translates the word as "sorcery" or "magic," but its cognate "sorcerer" (pharmakous) used in Revelation 21:8 and 22:15 is translated "mixer of poisons" as well as "magician." The root of both words, pharmakon, literally means "poison" or "drug."1    A few key Old Testament passages about witches which are often associated with the puritans such as Exodus 22:18 ("Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live"--KJV) use pharmakous in the Septuagint--the word translated sorcerer in Revelation 21:8 and 22:15.2 The Greek New Testament and the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Scriptures use different words such as mageia ("magic") when other types of occult practices like calling on spirits or using curses are meant. In English such words are usually translated "wizard," "necromancer," or some other appropriate word or phrase.2 Because of the Greek word chosen in each case, it appears that the New Testament authors and Septuagint translators understood the idea of witchcraft in terms of the use of drugs or poisons.    Finding the Witch according to this Definition Now there is a character in The Scarlet Letter who would be convicted of witchcraft, Mistress Hibbins. She characterizes the witch of New England folklore such as we see in "Young Goodman Brown.

Linguistic Stereotypes Essay -- Research Papers Language Essays Langua

Linguistic Stereotypes Language is a method in which individuals communicate in order to get their opinion across to the listening party. Language is the tool which ideas can be conveyed in various ways. Typically, language is referred to verbal communication, however, it ranges to all methods of communication i.e. sign language. Linguistic stereotypes are an existent form of discrimination. Since, languages are criticized and mocked due to the connection between language and cultural character. Thus, language is significantly related to the identity of the speakers. In addition, languages are vulnerable to criticism due to differences in cultural behavior. Firstly, according to ‘dictionary.com’ identity is defined as the variety of characteristics by which an individual is recognizable as a member of a group. Or in simpler terms the individuality of a person which makes him part of a society or creates a cultural connection or resemblance. These characteristics can be religion, culture and any other form of behavior that shows a sign of distinction. A personal interpretation is, the link established between an individual and a group which have unique characteristics. Language has a personality and a mood, created by the behavior of the speakers and their cultural identity. Moreover, this includes the tools speaker use to communicate through i.e. sign language. Languages can be described by human emotions and feelings; therefore, language is personified and dynamic. Historical events have lead to changes in languages in caused flexibility and dynamicity of language. Globalization and colonization also had an effect in word borrowing, and many languages have been altered due to this. Languages are also interpre... ...conversation and mood. Finally, the media’s involvement in creating stereotypes, and their ability to harness linguistics to establish links between language and identity. Comedians use accents as a method of criticizing a group of people and referencing to cultural behavior. Therefore, Linguistic stereotypes occur due to the association between language and the identity of a group of speakers. Works Cited: Preston, Dennis R. ‘Do you speak American?’ 27 April 2005. . Rabidcow. ‘Language Stereotypes’. 26 April 2005. Spark Notes.com ‘Casablanca, study guide’, 27 April 2005. . ‘Dicionary.com Definition of Identity’

PFC Robert C. Burke-USMC :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  PFC Robert Charles Burke on 7 November 1949 in Monticello, Illinois and enlisted in the Marine Corps from Chicago, Illinois. The Marine died on 17 May 1968 in the Southern Quang Nam Province, Republic of Vietnam (South). He received the Congressional Medal of Honor posthumously for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty. PFC Burke was serving as a machine gunner with Company I, 3d Battalion, 27th Marines (3/27), 1st Marine Division (REIN), FMF.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The citation, which was signed by then President Richard M. Nixon, reads as follows:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty for service as a machine gunner with Company I on Operation ALLEN BROOK. Company I was approaching a dry river bed with a heavily wooded tree line that borders the hamlet of Lee Nam, when they suddenly came under intense mortar, rocket propelled grenades, automatic weapon and small arms fire from a large, well concealed enemy force which halted the company’s advance and wounded several marines. Realizing that key points of resistance had to be eliminated to allow the units to advance and casualties to be evacuated. Pfc. Burke, without hesitation, seized his machine gun and launched a series of 1-man assaults against the fortified emplacements. As he aggressively maneuvered to the edge of the steep river bank, he delivered accurate suppressive fire upon several enemy bunkers, which enabled his comrades to advance and move the wounded marines to position s of relative safety. As he continued his combative actions, he located an opposing automatic weapons emplacement and poured intense fire into the position, killing 3 North Vietnamese soldiers as they attempted to flee. Pfc. Burke then fearlessly moved from one position to another, quelling the hostile fire until his weapon malfunctioned. Obtaining a casualty’s rifle and hand grenades, he advanced further into the midst of the enemy fire in an assault against another pocket of resistance killing 2 more of the enemy. Observing that a fellow marine had cleared his malfunctioning machine gun he grasped his weapon and moved into a dangerously exposed area and saturated the hostile tree line until he fell mortally wounded.

The Advantages of Global Expansion Essay

Recent interviews of top international executives by the Myrddin Group in San Antonio have revealed they thought they could create value by transferring their business model and American style of product and marketing to foreign markets. Many initially treated foreign markets much like the United States but soon found that this was not the correct approach. Many American products drew big yawns in Europe and Asia where most of the successful products were local. These national differences in customer tastes and preferences require a change in approach to marketing. This requires a redefining of the actions managers can take to compete more effectively as an international business. The Advantages of Global Expansion Expanding globally allows a business to increase its profitability in ways not available to purely domestic businesses. Companies that operate internationally are able to: Expand the market for their product offerings by selling those products in international markets. Achieve location economies of scale by distributing value creation activities around the globe to where they can be performed most efficiently. Earn a higher rate of return by leveraging any expertise developed in overseas operations and shifting it to other parts of the company’s global operations. While this sounds simple, it is constrained by the need to customize products, marketing, and business strategy to each of the different national locations. Most multinationals started out by taking their goods or services and selling them internationally. Companies like Toyota for example found out that the small vehicles that were popular in Japan were not as popular in the US as the larger sized autos. They adjust ed their product strategy to the US market and enjoyed the ensuing growth in market share and profitability. McDonald’s adapted likewise in India where cattle are revered and the typical Big Mac was doomed as a product. Location Economies The same principle holds true for location economies. Due to differences in feature costs, certain countries have a comparative advantage in the  production of certain products. As an example, Japan might excel in the production of automobiles, the United States in the production of computer software, and China in the production of clothing. For a company attempting to prosper in a global market this might mean that it would benefit by basing every value creation activity it needs in the country where economic, political, and cost considerations are most conducive for that activity. For example, if the most productive labor force for assembly operations is in China then any assembly operations should be there. If the best marketers are in the US then the marketing plans should be developed in the US. Companies that use a strategy such as this can realize these location economies and in doing so they can lower the costs of value creation and arrive at a low-cost position. Advantages Faster growth: Firms that have operate internationally tend to develop at a much quicker pace than those operating locally Access to cheaper inputs: Operating internationally may enable the firm to source raw materials or labor at lower prices Increased quality and efficiency: Exposure to foreign competition will encourage increased efficiency. Doing business in the international market allows firms to improve the quality of their product in order to gain a competitive advantage. New market opportunities: International business presents firms with new market opportunities. These new markets provide more opportunities for expansion, growth, and income. A bigger market means more customers, increased revenue, a larger profit margin, and allows the business to realize economies of scale. Diversification: As the firm diversifies its market, it becomes less vulnerable to changes in local demand. This reduces wild swings in a company’s sales and profits. Disadvantages Increased costs: There are increased operating expenses including the establishment of facilities abroad, the hiring of additional staff, traveling of personnel, specialized transport networks, information and communication technology. Foreign regulations and standards: The firm may need to conform to new standards. This may require changes such as in the production process, inputs and packaging, incurring additional costs.  Delays in payments: International trade may cause delays in payments, adversely affecting the firm’s cash flow. Complex organizational structure: International business usually requires changes to the firms operating structure. Training/retraining of management may be necessary to facilitate restructuring.

John Cage Essay

lav cage was whizz of the artists who moved the furthest past from tradition. detain himself says that he was trying to carry through what Ives wanted m any(prenominal) years in advance to be able to sit on the back doorstep at sundown, auditory modality to the melody. In continuing and expanding the Ivesian tradition, detain bust the antiquated nonions of euphony as put up sound consisting of melody, harmony, and rhythm (Nicholls, 2007). He wondered wherefore euphony had to be these things. His questioning conduct to sassy concepts of how euphonyal elements could be freed from the restraints oblige on them by conventional thought. around music contains exactly a a few(prenominal) of the available seamanes. Melody in its al roughly elementary good sense draws attention to a single line, which is a rather patriarchal way of perceiving music. Rhythm in which mattersoccur in era is in addition hold. Why, in spite of appearance a incident space of m eter, dope an event not happen at any point, its rhythmic aspects thus being freed from time in the more traditional sense? As henhouse puts it In a painting an image crapper go anywhere on the dismissvas. Why cant a rhythm do the same thing at heart the cloth of a gear up of music? detains revolutionary ideas stimulate take to more innovations. He is unremarkably ascribe with having invented bump music, music created under conditions that furnish certain of its split to the vagaries of the second base (Nicholls, 2007). Virgil Thomson notes that receive in composition is rather deal a kaleidoscope, and what kaleidoscopes and arabesques lack is urgency (Grant, 2001, p. 243). The music may not always suck in this quality, a condition that can in the end hinder its expression in string upently musical theater terms. But thither is a untested kind of musical aw atomic number 18ness, a vitality of thought and of imagination.henhouse has redefined the accurate co ncept of direction in music, since he has not been peculiarly interested in where events are going. Rather, he is more intrigued with the moment and with the possibilities of what can happen during that moment. detain has similarly thought ab out(p) musics purpose, deciding that actually on that point does not have to be any intent, that sounds alone can be the purpose. He says that a sound accomplishes nothing without it life would not last out the instant( Pritchett, 1996). His aesthetic that everything is music is important, for it opens countless possibilities. cages ideas have made a generation of composers rethink concepts that were taken too practically for granted or were ruled out of musical consideration by previous(prenominal) generations. These concepts have, in accompaniment, furthered music beyond its old boundaries. Many of cage ins plant are famous because of the revolutionary concepts that organise them. The composition for lightly that consists of four minutes, thirty-three seconds of silence, 4? 3? , is a show window in point. To dismiss the solve as a gimmick or as insignificant because it really is not music is to miss the point.Composers have pondered the silences in music in previous ages, but it took batting cage to realize that silence itself was an opportunity for a bonk make for and a complete experience. According to detain, silence is deciding in favor of sounds that are not intended. And batting cage feels that silence has philosophical overtones, for it strikes the foundations of the ego. 4? 33? is a difficult work, for there is so much to hearnothingand it is a memorable experience, for it shows a world of multiplicity, several(prenominal)thing that interests Cage far more than aspects of unity within a particular work (Pritchett, 1996).Because anything is assertable in Cages compositional process, some works are highly organized, while earlier(a)s contrive an outward motion picture of hit-or-miss an d unrelated orderings. Most of his earlyish pieces, among them the 5 Songs for Contralto (1938) and the Quartet for 12 Tom-Toms (1943), are carefully conceived and conventionally notated. harmony of Changes (1951) was created with the aid of the Chinese book of changes, I Ching, one of Cages favourite aids in the evolution of a work (Pritchett, 1996). In addition to his apologue approaches to the general aspects of composition, Cage utilizes fascinating cocks in some of hispieces.He has written compositions containing parts for brake drums. He has composed music for toy piano. Cage, in fact, has not jilted any possibility if that possibility has an ambitious sound. Thus, the amplified sound of water being swallowed, of a glass breaking or clinking, and of a balloon bursting are excellent sources, as good in their way as a piano or a trombone (Kostelanetz, 1991). Cages love of two conventional and unconventional sounds has made him see the motley traditional instruments a nd how they can be changed to produce a new result. superstar of these investigations resulted in the prepared piano, which consists of objects such as nails, bolts, pins, and other materials placed between the draw of a piano, creating a diversity of polar timbres. Henry Cowell had experimented with various possibilities of piano sonorities foregoing in the century, including playing on the within of the instrument, and Cage was undoubtedly influenced by some of Cowells discoveries. But in more or less respects, Cages is an original concept.As a result of his pioneering efforts, the prepared piano is for all practical purposes a new instrument, reminiscent of a Balinese gamelan orchestra (Kostelanetz, 1991). Another out-of-the-way effect occurs in The Wonderful leave of Eighteen Springs, a song for express and piano in which the pianist plays on the piano lid and on various other wooden parts of the instrument rather than on the keys. The piano, in other words, has many so und possibilities from which Cage has cognize a diversity of new and odd timbres (Pritchett, 1996). Cage has been criminate of being narrow- forefronted, of only working with novelties and current avant-garde fashions.This is untrue. Cage actually is an important figure whose mind is an open one and whose novelty-fashions in their ingrained implications are significant and even visionary. They are not fraudulent, nor are they aimed at the demolition of Western musical civilization, although Cage has been accused of that and of just about everything else by his critics. The occupation is just now that to the casual observer Cages music is undisciplined. But this is also false. In some of his works ascertain itself is the discipline, a mode that is used to produce about that which is not necessarily intended.The compositional premises stool one of Cages latest works, the Etudes Australes, is proof that there is a definite method hindquarters chance procedures and that the r esults can present as unified a full-page as if more conventional methods of organization had been utilise (Patterson, 2001). Cage reports that the pieces created the impression of in series(p) music to some attenders, and indeed the uncompromising aspects of the method of creation and the resulting combinations of pitches from that procedure would undoubtedly give an audience an impression of twelve-tone writing.Strictly speaking, of course, it is normally impossible to tell if a work is serial simply by hearing to it (Cage, 1966). Yet this association proves a point, for to defect the chance operations of Cage for serial procedures is to demonstrate that two different methods can produce similar aural results. For a serial composer, serial procedures provide the exercises to most of the compositional questions and to the continuity within a particular piece.For Cage, chance operations answer the compositional questions, and from these procedures a continuity of musical expr ession develops. One of Cages literary methods is a further ensample of the logical use of chance operations. In trying to find a epithet for a book of writings that in a typical Cage port contains a liberal sprinkling of awry(p)ities. Cage subjected the twenty-six letters of the alphabet to a chance operation with the help of the I Ching. The letter m was the winner, and the book was after entitled M.Although any letter would have worked as well, Cage noted that m was a good choice and particularly appropriate because it begins the names of many of his best-loved people and things, among them music, mushrooms, Modern practice of medicine, and Mao Tse-tung. It was an absurd method for choosing an absurd title for a book of absurdities Another aspect of Cages writing demonstrates more plus and visionary qualities of his music. serve for Meditation for disposed(p) Piano Solo (1944) is early Cage, and the cooking of the piano involves stove bolts and wood screws(Patterson, 200 1).This piece, deal 4? 33? , can be viewed initially and superficially as one eventa monolith. Within this monolithic experience is an inner world of relationships, of sounds and events that realise far beyond the two pitch classes that Cage employs. The philosophical concept behind a work such as this is simple why should a piece of music begin, develop itself in manifold ways, and prove itself by an infinite change that keeps an interest going in the work itself? Why should the variety not be of a different kind?A piece of music can simply suspend itself in time, although time itself is usually conceived as a terribly limiting artistic commodity. Pieces begin and pieces end. What about what is out front the beginning and after the ending? Time, itself a measured fragment of eternity, is always there on either side of an experience of any kind, and, in effect, what happens within the time of a work need not always make the time reach but rather faculty make it exist within a vacuum, within a world of monolithic hitherto many-faceted events. Cages work is an early example of what has become a new aspect of musical experience.Other composers began thinking about the possibilities of the monolith, and numerous examples have been written in the last quarter of a century. La Monte Young opus 1960 7 is a case in point. The work consists of two pitch classes, a B and an F-sharp (the relationship to Cage Prelude for Meditation is obvious), which the composer says should be held for a colossal time. In 1961 the work was played in in the raw York by a string trio, and the forty-five minute duration of that particular reading resulted in a whole world of fluctuating overtones for those who were willing to listen (Patterson, 2001).Experimental composers are not well as outrageous as their critics might think. Even a work that attempts by its chance procedures or other random methods of construction to be formless lock masters a form, which, in turn, expand s our conception of form. For example, if a composer writes some musical fragments on notecards, shuffles the cards, and accordingly plays the music in the order in which it appears, there will be many different orderings but always the same music, rearranged each time.If one writes a chance piece for ten players with ten instruments, there is a limitation in the fact that the performers are ten, that the instruments are ten, and that the efforts are winning place within an inescapable time span. A composer cannot, in other words, achieve complete freedom, complete formlessness, for that is an impossibility. What a composer can do is achieve a new musical result.References Cage, John. (1966). Silence Lectures and Writings. The MIT Press New Ed edition. Grant, Mark N. (2001).Maestros of the Pen A History of Classical Music review in America. Northeastern University Press. Kostelanetz, Richard. (1991). John Cage An Anthology. Da Capo Press. Nicholls, David. (2007). John Cage (Amer ican Composers). University of Illinois Press. Patterson, David W. (2001). John Cage Music, Philosophy, and Intention, 1933-1950 (Studies in Contemporary Music Andculture). Routledge 1 edition. Pritchett, James. (1996). The Music of John Cage (Music in the Twentieth Century). Cambridge University Press.