E-books, Libraries, and Hard Cover Books Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

E-books, Libraries, and Hard Cover Books - Essay Example The main fears of publishers will be discussed, for example, a feeling that they will lose out on revenues if librarians have unfettered rights to purchase and distribute books. This chapter will progress by by discussing the reasons and possible reasons why publishers want the buying and lending model changed being that the content if now in electronic e-Book form and not the usual paperback books. The paragraph will then be concluded by summarizing the main points.The third paragraph will discuss the reasons why there is a conflict between publishers and librarians, from the point of view of the librarians. This will be the main point for this paragraph and will expound the main in details. The details will discuss the librarians’ revenue model for selling the paperback books and the model they use for the e-Books. The point at which this creates disagreements and conflicts with publishers will also be discussed. For instance, the fact that e-Books have no wear and tear or p ossible loss, and creates convenience for library patrons in that they don’t have to go to the library physically to review or even borrow a book. The benefits that librarians confer publishers will be discussed. The sources of information to be used will e verifiable scholarly sources such as journals and books that have done preliminary research. The paragraph will be concluded by reviewing the main pointsThe concept of e-Books being software will also be discussed before the paragraph is concluded.

Final Examination Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Final Examination - Assignment Example Employee X and employee Y. It say that employee X are bad employee that are not motivated by the job they are doing and need coercion to work productively. Most managers will not have incentives for employees falling in category X instead they use coercion. On the other side employee Y have natural liking of their job and little motivation can double their productivity. Other theories such as Maslow hierarchy of need indicate the progressive need of motivation. As one motivation is satisfied it means a lot to productivity and reenergize for another achievement. All motivation theories address one outcome in there explanation aspect of motivation. On the same note, every theory has a role and every theory has one way or the other that can be used by a manager to increase the productivity in the company. A good example is the comparative picture that the theory of Maslow and that of McGregor when viewed in unison they draw. On commonality, they all share one fabric: the fabric of motivation. However there approach is different. On one hand the of X and Y which is a school of thought of McGregor explains that there exist two types of employee one who is self-initiated, self-motivated and work productively under supervision and coercion. Such employee is grouped as an employee Y. In real sense such an employee could be following the ladder of hierarchy postulated by Maslow being motivated at every stage. After achieving on physiological need the self-motivation of moving to safety need arises and on and on till the self-actualization is achiev ed. Consequently, the two theory fit together. On the other side, an employee who is fixated on one step of Maslow theory tend to be frustrated or retrogress to the lower hierarchy for the purposes of feeling satisfied. These employees tend to fit in category X according to McGregor. Many other theories have a commonality point of view. Public employee determine

Laughing All the Way to the Bank Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Laughing All the Way to the Bank - Essay Example Consequently, one maybe compelled to advance his education by getting an MBA. However, the reality and frustration soon sets in when even after achieving higher credentials, no promotion is forthcoming. To this end, Adams came to the reality that it was not always guaranteed that the highly qualified and best suited candidate for a job gets a promotion. In addition, hard work done by one employee is normally accorded to another less deserving employee. Moreover, based on his comic strip on Dilbert, Adams present the view that only the ‘bright but clueless’ individuals are hired. Consequently, employees are promoted on the basis of low competence rather than merit. From Adam’s viewpoint, in addition to his economic degree, he had gone a step further to achieve an MBA. All of his extra effort was centered on the belief that he would achieve promotion. However, after realizing that no promotion was forthcoming, and a stagnated career, Scott Adams was compelled to qui t his job. It is quite evident that Scott Adams was frustrated with the corporate world. This was after realizing that job promotion and high academic qualifications are not always intrinsically linked. Consequently, Scott Adams opted to go fulltime into his entrepreneurial job as a cartoonist following its initial popularity and potential to flourish. What sources of information and expertise did Adams use in starting and developing his business? Did the start-up of the Dilbert cartoon follow the typical pattern of entrepreneurial start-ups? Why or why not? The concept of Scott Adams cartoon strip, ‘Dilbert’ was initially inspired through his personal experiences as an employee in the bank. To this end, Scott Adams cites that he used Dilbert to channel the frustration, absurdity and stress of working life that he experienced in the corporate world of America. In the onset of ‘Dilbert’s’ prominence, Scott Adams changed tact in the sourcing of informa tion for Dilbert’s development. To this end, Adams sought customer opinion by attaching his email address to every cartoon strip. The purpose for attaching his email address was to draw in suggestions and comments that would develop the Dilbert comic strip further. Consequently, Adams would receive between 350 and 800 feedback messages daily. The start up of Dilbert cartoon did not follow the typical pattern of entrepreneurial start ups. Foremost, Adams started off his cartoon strip while still working at Pacific Bell. To this end, his method off start up contravened the classical model norm that usually calls for total commitment and resource allocation for start up. Moreover, owing to the fact that Scott Adams started off his cartoon strip while still working, he incurred few risks. To this end, majority of classical entrepreneurial start ups involve the incurring a high extent of risk. For example, if the risk of failure in the enterprise comes to pass, the entrepreneur in most cases has no fallback plan. To this end, he/she risks not only losing investments made but also an optional resource pool. However, in Scott Adams case, if he failed in his cartoon strip, he had an immediate fallback plan within his job security. This is in recognition that Adams had not yet quite his job while starting up Dilbert. Adams claims that his success is due primarily to luck and persistence; do you agree or disagree? Do you think his advice is helpful to potential entrepreneurs? Why or why not? Based on Scott Adams view on

The effects of the 2008 Global Financial Crisis on the Thai Economy Essay

The effects of the 2008 Global Financial Crisis on the Thai Economy - Essay Example The crisis that the United States experienced that began way back summer of 1987 made way to the pullback to its economy and the world. Economic recession did a domino effect in the global financial crisis. How ever, as the member of the first world country recovers from the crisis, consequences still felt on some of the fast developing countries like Thailand. Economic recovery globally has been a sudden and immediate focus of the countries among Asian nations. The lost of many jobs are expected to happen in the United States and Europe in the coming year and with regard to this, a higher rate of unemployment is very hard to predict globally. Thailand as apart of the Asian nations would also be affected by the crisis as a whole. With the economy that depends on the exportation and importation, Thailand’s economy will be expected to be tumbling down and in effect would be reducing growth and unemployment. Thailand as a part of the global imbalances as it has been manifested in the recent years, will have to double work considering that it has also its own internal difficulties politically in dealing with the policies with the government. In spite the fact that Thailand’s government has been working so hard and ambitiously aiming to build a stronger economy in the middle of the global financial crisis, confusion and disorder among the people are manifested and has become a serious internal problem between the government and the people. Crisis Impact to the Economy of Thailand There are two financial crises that Thailand experiences with in the span of ten years; 1997-1998 and 2007-2008. The first part of the financial crisis was so damaging and required many years to recover. In fact, upon recovering, the country is able to achieve and attain a higher and promising private investment growth in its economy and established good reputation to be a destination of foreign capital. During this time, the country recorded rapid development and sustained th e growth of economy but still, the financial system shows vulnerability to the shocks of global crisis and became unstable (Ahmed & Islam 2010 ,p.66). The recent crisis which is the 2008 is merely different from the first one. Although in this crisis, Thailand is not much involve in debts compared to last time. Facing the reality that the country cannot escape from the issue of global crisis, in what way does the issue impacts the economy of Thailand? As it has being known that Thailand after the last crisis increasingly depends on the global economy. When the global crisis burst and the damage is felt and seen among some major institutions in the United States and European countries, credit-default is experienced, shocked the financial market, it is expected that that the real and deep effect of the crisis be seen and felt in the industrialized countries. Thailand has not seen and felt the direct effect of the global crisis during the first wave. The second wave of the crisis broug ht panic globally which resulted to freezing in the credit market and the global stock market meltdown. This time, Thailand economy was not able to escape as the stock market index fluctuated where billions of dollars were lost in few months time (Chirathivat 2011). The weakening of the economy transcends business programs between the bank of Thailand and the business firms all over the country during 2008. A serious

Role of Human Resources Function Essay Example for Free

Role of Human Resources Function Essay Nowadays, the world of business is shrinking day by day, technology has conquered almost every place of the business sector with its different technological instruments and equipments, which perform and accomplishes the role two times greater than a human accomplishes. In midst of these innovations, a number of companies give credit to the role of human resources for their success and prosperity in their business and service sectors. (Frembrun, 1984) Subsequently, the role of human resources and the need of proper human resources management have been significantly given importance for their proper management, in order to achieve better and long-term positive results in a company. In this regard, we will try to define, analyze, and discuss various aspects of human resources management and their different functions of recruitment, selection, and planning of human resources in a company in this paper. An educational hypothesis or a business practice, in which employees are managed through its theoretical and a practical procedure, is termed as Human Resource Management. (Goss, 1994) Mainly, the employees with varying needs and goals are given primary importance in this hypothetical discipline, and do not allow the consideration to think of them as basic business resources, for example, filing cabinets and trucks. (Ferris, 1995) Practitioners see the Human Resource Management as a more innovative analysis of workplace management, rather than the older traditional approach. (Frembrun, 1984) Managers of an enterprise are forced through its methods to express their goals with specificity, so that workforce may understand and undertake them easily. The academic theory of Human Resource Management’s basic assertion is that humans are not degraded as just machines. (Marta M, 2005) Therefore, an interdisciplinary assessment of populace is necessary in the workplace. As a result, psychosomatic, sociological, industrial fields, and post-structuralism, post-modernism critical theories engage in recreating a major role in the aforementioned regard. (Zwieg, 1991) In recent years, varieties of performance enhancing and progressive human resource management practices are adopted by the U.S. companies, to improve their competitiveness in the global marketplace. These recommendations may be unsurprising, because the way of managing people in an organization influence its performance was more emphasized by the professionals and academics. (Mckenzie, 2002) Therefore, many testimonials were produced in the last decade to the value of progressive human resource management practices and their regarding systems. While assuming the staffing selection and its quality, many employers seek fresh graduates for the colleges, with a major in human resources, industrial or labor relations, human resources administration. (McNeil, 2004) Rest of them seems to be looking for the graduates with a business background or a kind of arts education. Previous experience is an asset for many specialized jobs, for example, the jobs of arbitrators, mediators, and managers. Due to overwhelming supply of these qualified college graduates, keen competition for the jobs is expected from the employers. (Burke, 2005) In particular, improvement of the performance of organizations is widely due to the staff involvement, empowerment, job redesign, extensive employee training; team based production systems, and performance-dependent inducement compensations. (Hutton, 2004) The success of any organization is very significant in regard of attracting the qualified employees and their matching for the suited jobs. (Chelladurai, 2006) However, it is impossible for many large enterprises to allow the top management to be in the close contact with the employees. This connection is provided by the labor relations, training, and human resources managers and specialists. (Tayeb, 2005) In the past, the performance of the managerial functions of an organization was related to these abovementioned workers, such as handling employee benefits, interviewing, recruiting, and hiring new staff as per the policies and the requirements of the top management of the organization. (Dransfield, 2000) Nowadays, top executives are consulted regarding the strategic planning to manage the tasks by these human resources employees. These workers have come up from their behind the camera work to leading the corporation by their suggestions and improving the policies. The financial success of an organization is due to the significance of the human resources management department, and therefore, is recognized by the senior management. (Bach, 2005) These workers are also helping the organizations, in an effort to augment their productivity and morale, performance and their business results by using employee skills and providing required training and giving opportunities to develop themselves, to increase the satisfaction of the employee in their working environment. While some jobs do not require close contact with the public, but still, dealing with people is an important key factory of the human resources job. (Jackson, 2006) A human resources generalist in a small business handles every aspect of human resources work and may require a variety of knowledge for this purpose. However, in a large corporation, the management and development of human resources programs and policies is frequently done by the top human resources executives. (Dransfield, 2000) Several departments are supervised by the human resources director, with an experienced manager, likely to be specializing in any one human resources activity, like benefits, training, compensation, development, and employment or employee relations. However, the placement and employment managers do the supervision of hiring and supervision of workers and various employees. (Jackson, 2006) In the recruitment, the college campuses are often visited by the aforementioned specialists, and screening the applicants occasionally. In order to discuss wages, promotional opportunities, and working conditions with prospective employees, these specialists must familiarize themselves with the policies and the organization, itself. They should also update themselves with the equal employment opportunity and affirmative actions guidelines, like, Americans with Disabilities Act, etc. (Marta M, 2005) Equal employment opportunity statistical reports are complied and submitted by the equal employment opportunity officers, and delegations, in an attempt to investigate and resolve grievances regarding corporate practices for possible violations. (Mckenzie, 2002) Employer relations representatives are usually seen in the government agencies, maintaining working relationships with local employers. Promotion of use of the public employment programs and services is also sustained by these rep resentatives. Specialization programs in specific areas like position classifications or pensions are conducted by job analysis specialists for the employers. These analysts collect and examine job duties information, which explain the training, skills, and duties, required for each job. Expert knowledge of the job analyst is also required, whenever an organization introduces a new job or when reviewing existing jobs. (Tanke, 2000) Research and planning work is conducted by occupational analysts in large firms. Studying the effects of industry and professional trends upon employee relationships and occupational classification systems is also a concern for these analysts. However, compensation managers establish and maintain pay system of a firm as their principal job. Staff specialists assist them, devising ways in order to ensure equitable and fair pay rates. (Buhler, 2002) Surveys are also conducted to examine the comparison of their rates with the other companies, and to examine the pay scale of their firm with the changing laws and regulations. Reward systems such as pay-for-performance plans are also designed by these managers to manage their firm’s performance evaluation system. (Carrell, 1992) As a part of the planning process, the health insurance and pensions plans are managed by the employee benefits managers and specialists. In addition, life, accidental death, and dismemberment insurance, disability insurance are also offered by some firms, to meet the necessities of workforce change, for example, child and elder care, employee assistance, and wellness programs, etc. Changing Federal and State regulations and legislations should be updated, which may affect employee benefits. (Buhler, 2002) Training plays a significant role in the success of an organization. Therefore, training and development programs for employees are conducted by training and development specialists. Increasingly, management recognizes that business results are achieved by increasing individual and organizational performance, building worker’s loyalty to the firm and enhancing productivity by developing their skills and quality of work. So, training is nowadays recognized as a business imperative, while presenting it as a method of improving employee morale and developing their skills. (Rothwell, 2003) The complexity of the work environment, the organizational and technological change’s rapid pace, the constantly generation of the new knowledge due to the growing number of jobs, determines the need of training in an organization. In addition, insights have been provided by the advances in learning theory into the ways of adult learning and the different ways of organizing an effective training for the employees. Planning, directing, and organizing this wide range of training is done by these training specialists. New employees are given the opportunity of on-the-job training and orientation sessions, in order to improve and maintain their job skills and simultaneously, preparing them for the jobs requiring greater skill. Supervisors are also helped by these specialists in order to deal with employees effectively. (Ferris, 1995) International human resources managers are also emerging specialties, which requires the handling of human resources issues related to an organization’s foreign operations. Secondly, human resources information system specialists process human resources information through their developed and applied computer programs, for the matching of job seekers with different job openings, and the handling of other human resources matters. (Ferris, 1995) Classes for the enhancement of the marketable skills of the workers are also offered by most of the specialized organizations in human resources. Certification programs are also offered by some institutions, which help in the advancement opportunities. The International Foundation of Employee Benefit Plans is an example of these programs, where a designation is conferred to the persons after completing a college level courses series and passes the related exams. (Ulrich, 1997) In terms of selection and recruitment, a thorough job analysis for the determination of level of the skills, technical abilities, flexibility of the employee, competencies is considered very important by the professionals. At this point, the consideration of both the internal and external factors is imperative, which can have an impact on the employees’ recruitment. Current and future trends of the labor market, such as education level, skills, government investment, etc. like issues and that out-with the power of an organization are the external factors. On the other hand, organizational culture and management styles can be controlled, predicted, and monitored easily as the internal influences. (Ulrich, 1997) Consideration of the ethical and legal implications should be necessary in an organization regarding their decisions concerning human resources management policies, which are made to protect employees from racial or ethnic conflicts, such as white employees in the comparison of African-American subgroups. (Foulkes, 1989) Awareness of the rise in discrimination, unfair dismissal, and harassment cases regarding different race and sex, and their harmful effects on employees and organization should be in the employers. A foundation for an increasing interest in diversity during work has been provided by the Anti-discrimination legislation over the past 30 years. In order to understand the different responses of individuals to the labor market’s changes, one should try to understand the different perspectives, such as geographical spread, professional structure, and generational disparity. The organization should consider the distance of traveling for the work while offering the pay. When deciding the requirements and eligibilities of a post, one should also think about the influencing factors, like transportation and infrastructure of the area. (Webb, 1989) During the recruitment and selection process, there may not be any effect of blocking people on the discrimination of race, color, and creed. People with disabilities should also be entertained for the employment opportunities and promotions. Essentials functions should be reflected in the screening, recruiting and interviewing of the candidate. It is appreciable in the human resources, if the people of different color, and disable people may be included in the selection committee. (Mabey, 1998) In the recruitment, an organization can also employ, based on targeted approach. In this case, a request is post to the human resources administrator, in order to approach jobseekers for the vacancy. This request is then reviewed by the administrator to check the arrears at its extreme extent. After the request is approved, the targeted recruitment plan is implemented and then the aforementioned specialists match the jobseekers with the required vacancy. Â  Regarding the affirmative action, it does not end when an employee is placed after the employment process. All the employees should be treated fairly and equitably are some of the logical and subsequent efforts of this action. The goals of workforce diversity will be accomplished greatly, if the administration of reasonable and sound human resources policies will be in a consistent manner. (Frembrun, 1984) In addition, steps should be taken to ensure that equal opportunities are provided to the ethnic or racial minorities, women, and disabled people. It should also be equally important that the workplace environment should be a positive one as these minorities move into the more depressed state where they are considerably unrepresented. (Hristozova, 2006) Conclusively, we have tried our best to explain and understand the Human Resources Management in relation to its recruitment, staffing, training, placement, and planning in a business organization. All these abovementioned aspects play a vital and crucial role in the success of a particular business association, which has been significantly dealt with sensitivity and importance by the professionals and company managers. References Charles J. Frembrun. (1984). Strategic Human Resources Management. John Wiley and Sons. David Goss. (1994). Principles of Human Resource Management. Routledge. David Ulrich. (1997). Human Resource Champions. Harvard Business School Press. Dr Christopher Mabey. (1998). Human Resource Management. Blackwell Publishing. Dr Gerald R Ferris. (1995). Handbook of Human Resource Management. Blackwell Publishing. Elena Hristozova. (2006). Human Resource Management in Consulting Firms. Springer. Fred K. Foulkes. (1989). Human Resources Management. Prentice Hall. Gerald R. Ferris, Sherman D. Rosen, Darold T. Barnum. (1995). Handbook of Human Resource Management. Blackwell Publishing. Gisela M. Webb. (1989). Human Resources Management in Libraries. Haworth Press. J. Steven Mckenzie. (2002). Opportunities in Human Resource Management Careers. McGraw-Hill Professional. Janice (EDT) Simmons-Welburn, Beth McNeil. (2004). Human Resource Management in Todays Academic Library. Libraries Unlimited. Mark C. Zwieg. (1991). Human Resources Management. John Wiley and Sons. Marta M. (2005). Managing Human Resources in Latin America. Routledge. Mary L. Tanke. (2000). Human Resource Management for the Hospitality Industry. Thomson Delmar Learning. Michael R. Carrell. (1992). Personnel/Human Resources Management. Maxwell Macmillan International. Monir H. Tayeb. (2005). International Human Resource Management. Oxford University Press. Packianathan Chelladurai. (2006). Human Resource Management in Olympic Sport Organizations. Human Kinetics. Patricia M. Buhler. (2002). Streetwise Human Resources Management. Adams Media. Robert Dransfield. (2000). Human Resources Management. Ca-Print-Harcourt_Heinemann. Robin W. Hutton. (2004). How to Set Up an HR Department. Lorman Business Center. Ronald J. Burke. (2005). Reinventing Human Resources Management. Routledge. Stephen Bach. (2005). Managing Human Resources. Blackwell Publishing. Susan E. Jackson. (2006). Strategic Human Resource Management. Blackwell Publishing. William J. Rothwell. (2003). Planning and Managing Human Resources. HRD Products.

Blood Brothers Essay Example for Free

Blood Brothers Essay I wanted to adopt but Mr Lyons is Well he says he wanted his own son, not someone elses. Myself, I believe that an adopted child can become ones own So when Mr Lyons went away on his business trip, Mrs Lyons persuaded her cleaner which is Mrs Johnstone to give one of he children to Mrs Lyons, since Mrs Johnstone was having twins. Mr and Mrs Lyons are very rich and they live in a big house, so Edward grows up in a privileged and comfortable environment. Mrs Lyons makes Mrs Johnstone promise on the bible that Mrs Johnstone will give one of her child to Mrs Lyons, the narrator says: In the name of Jesus, the thing was done, now theres no going back, for anyone. Its too late now, for feeling torn. Theres a pact been sealed, theres a deal been born. In return of the favour that Mrs Johnstone gave to Mrs Lyons, that Mrs Lyons would let Mrs Johnstone see Edward everyday. Mrs Johnstone says: I would still be able to see him everyday, wouldnt I? Mrs Lyons replies: Of course. During Edwards childhood, his father didnt spend much time with him; he was always busy with his work. For instance when Edward said to his father: Daddy we havent finished the story yet. Mr Lyons replies: Mummy will read the story, Edward. Ive got to go to work for an hour Also Mr Lyons was not spending much time with Mrs Lyons as well. After Mrs Johnstone has delivered the twins and given one of them to Mrs Lyons, Mrs Lyons became very nasty, she tried to keep Mrs Johnstone away from Edward, for example when Mrs Johnstone says: Ah hes lovely. Ah look, he wants to be picked up, Ill just. Mrs Lyons answers Hes fine. He doesnt want to be picked up. Although Mrs Lyons said that Mrs Johnstone could see Edward everyday, but she did not let her. After Mrs Lyons dismissed Mrs Johnstone. Edward has a very good education, his parents sends him to boarding school, since they have the money for it. He is a very intelligent boy, but thats because he is encourage by his parents to learn. The type of language that Edward uses is Standard English, he calls his mother: Mummy Edward Standard English because that is how he was brought up by the Lyons. His parents influence the language he uses, since his parents uses Standard English. Other people treat Edward with respect, because he is in a high standard of living and comes from a rich family. Again when there was a situation with the policeman, but with Edward. When the policeman was telling Mrs Lyons what had happened, he didnt make it as a major concern unlike with Mrs Johnstone. The police was very polite. This is how he treated this problem. Policeman says: Ah er, as I say, it was more of a prank, really, Mr Lyons. Id just dock his pocket money if I was you. But, one thing I would say if y dont mind me sayin; is well, Im not sure Id let him mix with the likes of them in the future. Make sure he keeps with his own kind, Mr Lyons. Well er, thanks for the drink, sir. All the best now. Hes a good lad. The policeman was saying that it was just only a prank, but that he said to Mrs Johnstone was totally different. Also the policeman had told Mr Lyons to keep Edward away from children like mickey. The way that this situation was handle was normal, wasnt serious like Mrs Johnstone. Mickey has a slight influence on Edward. For instance, when Edward asks his mother Are you feeling better now, mummy? Mrs Lyons replies Much better now, darling. Oh Edward, look, look at those birds. Look at the lovely black and white one. Edward immediately says Dont mummy, dont look. Its a magpie, never look at one magpie. Its one for sorrow Mrs Lyons said Edward. Thats just stupid superstition Edward replies Its not, mickey told me Therefore Edward believes in superstition, also like Mrs Johnstone, for example when Mrs Lyons put new shoes on the table, Mrs Johnstone immediately said: Never put new shoes on the table. You never know whatll happen Edward likes Mickeys company because they are very different from each other although they are blood brothers, for example when Mickey is talking to Edward, Edward admires the way that Mickey talks and Edward admires mickey very much. Edward says: Pissed off. You say smashing things dont you? Do you know anymore words like that? When Linda needed help she had Edward by her side. For instance when Mickey couldnt find a job Linda turn to Mickey. Conclusion I think that the environment around us determines our lives because it depends where we are, whom we are with. The way we become around other people everyday, the way we are brought up by our parents and the habits and dislikes we have. Like for instance Mickey and Edward are Blood Brothers, but grew up in differently in different environments.

Was The Bosnian War An Ethnic Conflict Politics Essay

Was The Bosnian War An Ethnic Conflict Politics Essay The process by which one perceives a given situation can be misleading, especially when the information being relayed is moulded in a particular format- to the liking of the transmitter. World views of the war that took place in Bosnia between 1992 and 1995 leave most to conclude that the tension was a classic case of ethnic conflict. This essay will explore the multidimensionality of the conflict in hopes of shedding light on other areas of stress that might have contributed to the forming or outbreak of the war by assessing the general discord in terms of measures set in place by theories of ethnic conflict. After offering definitions of some key terms that will be used in this writing, the essay will provide a brief history of the conflict, single out ethnic and identity entrepreneurs, rediscover roots of any existing particularity or stressors (including polarisation and pillarisation in the conflict), present theories of ethnic conflict, and show a detailed analysis through revi ew of literature before concluding. An analysis of the diverse faà §ades in this conflict will serve as a basis for comparison for points of interest, actors or parties involved, and will highlight how these factors influenced the surge of events that took place. Can the conflict in Bosnia be considered solely an ethnic conflict? This paper will endeavour to challenge the status of this war, as purely ethnic, by showing that there exist dimensions of this conflict which render it impossible to disavow the presence of convincing supporting evidence regarding the role of ethnicity and ethnic diversity as a cause for civil war. Definitions It is important to point out that because of the qualifying large number of loss of life and the nature in which that loss took place in this conflict, it can and will be termed as a war and genocide. For the purposes of this essay, while it is not always the case that ethnic groups share exclusive languages or affiliations, ethnicity, will refer to the existence of a unique set of racial, historical, linguistic, religious, cultural and/or ancestral traits, all shared specifically by a given group of individuals. National and ethnic identity, touch on the borders of a single concept, identity; it would seem fitting to relate them in terms of the conflict to be mentioned, as they both play a part in its history. Walker Connor defines this type of identity as being the self view of ones group, rather than the tangible characteristics, that is of essence in determining the existence or non-existence of ones nation (Qtd in Davis, 1999), while the presence of this type of identity is not always stable or fixed, as ethnicity is dynamic (Feron, Introduction to Concepts of Conflict, War Violence 2009). This essay will highlight four groups involved in this conflict: the Serbs (mainly Orthodox group), the Bosniaks (Muslim group), the Croats (mainly Catholic group), and potential causative foreign actors involved directly or indirectly in this conflict through participation or interest. A key term in this essay, prejudice, is defined by Herbert Blumer as a protective device. It functions however short-sightedly to preserve the integrity and position of the dominant group (Qtd in Kunovich and Hodson, 2002). Lastly, the term ethnic conflict, will indicate a situation of conflict, a clashing of goals among two or more parties or ethnic groups, sometimes depicting ancient hatreds, discrimination or victimisation through the use of media outlets and/or historical account, the possible involvement of ethnic or identity entrepreneurs whose contribution directly or indirectly l eads to a primary form of stress placed on any of the given parties or ethnic groups, differentiating the group in a way which might lead to the birth of a sense of external threat and resulting in a need to preserve the identity itself (Feron, Ethnicity Conflict 2009). History The Former Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) has had a multi-cultural and was always made up of multi-ethnic countries, while always falling under new rule or administration- each guided by different ideologies. This foundation makes for a breeding ground of multiplicity, resentment, gains and losses, and most of all change ever-present. As communism lost is hold on FRY, new, nationalist and separatist ideologies began to grow popular among the territories. Slobodan MiloÃ…Â ¡eviĆ¡ was placed into office in 1989, and quickly amended the Serbia constitution to allow for influence in Kosovo and Vojvodina (Region currently in the North of Serbia, which used to pertain to Hungary), which gave Serbia access to more votes on the federal level of Yugoslavias government. Montenegros vote then meant an additional vote for Serbia, leaving Serbia as the most powerful hand in the government (Ron 2000). Bosnia was considered an exotic country among European nations, due to its inhabitants and rich melange of cultures. Bosnia was a cosmopolitan country where more than a quarter of marriages cut through cultural divides (Lifschultz and Ali 1994). As the new nationalist and separatist mentalities span over the territories of FRY, mainly in Croatia and Serbia, things began to become clear that change was in the near future. After attempts to divide up Bosnia, into administrative and ethnic districts, proved semi-successful, but not without outbreaks for justice, it seemed inevitable that the moment had come for independence. Bosnia was already divided into the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia, Republika Srpska, and around the same time, both Slovenia and Croatia gaining independence from FRY. The then unseen yet not unthought-of situation was more evident day by day; if Slovenia and Croatia were to secede from Yugoslavia, Bosnia would quite literally be at the mercy of the Milosevic regime. Problems would then be expected from all sides of Bosnia, not to mention the l arger evil, as seen by Bosnians in that moment- Greater Serbia. Due to the separation of Croatia and Slovenia, even after thoughts to pursue a looser Yugoslavia Serbia would begin feeling its foundation and republic, quickly falling out beneath it, this only caused political leaders to consider preemptive action, in the form of attack. The republic became more unstable than ever when the government in Bosnia made it clear that when Slovenia and Croatia sought independence from FRY, that it would no doubt be forced to seek the same liberty, and Bosnia and Herzegovina began the referendum for independence alike. On March 5, 1992, parliament declared independence for Bosnia and Herzegovina, which shook the throne on which FRYs government had been founded, (Ron 2000). It is this timeline of events that outlines the situation in which Bosnia found itself under attack- both from the outside and the inside, including mass rape, killings, torture, oppression and finally the loss of approxim ately 200.000 lives. It is the identification of these sides which will prove interesting in testing theories of ethnic conflict on the conflict in Bosnia. Ethnic Identity Entrepreneurs In any given conflict there is sure to exist those who somehow find a way to use an existing fear or hate, to pressure or persuade others to feel endangered or moved to act. Franjo TuÄ‘man, of Croatia, and Slobodan MiloÃ…Â ¡eviĆ¡, of Serbia, entered into discussions which are known as the KaraÄ‘orÄ‘evo Agreement, which did just that by claiming rights to parts of Bosnia based on ethnic and demographic make-up (Ron 2000). As mentioned in the history (prior to the outbreak of this conflict) section of this essay, Croatia and Serbia took it upon themselves to divide up Bosnia- favouring ethnic enclaves and creating new republics for which, of course, new influences and/or votes could be easily manipulated, in the great scheme of gaining more and more land and authority. Populations were made to feel that their ethnic identity was externally threatened, and that there was somehow a need to protect it at any cost- first by separation and later t hrough physical battle. Other leaders, nations, entities, had made their views clear, that they would not interfere in this conflict and that they would also not stand for Bosnia to defend itself, without the forced attempt to sway Bosnia toward surrendering and ending up a helpless pawn in the international system, left to be carved or moulded- all the while losing its uniqueness (Kunovich and Hodson 2002). The issue with intervening in this matter, for the United States, and General Colin Powell, in 1992, was the question of deploying ground troops into Bosnia, something that would have held a cost of tens of billions of dollars. That particular point of debate took the panels down another avenue of discussion and of course complicated the situation of helping Bosnia (Lifschultz and Ali 1994). Later, the United States, the European community, and the United Nations, entered into a political huddle in what seemed to last forever. The process took the form of a remarkable policy deb ate, a discourse in search of rationales, while, in Diego Arrias apt phrase, slow-motion genocide was systematically carried out in Bosnia (Lifschultz and Ali 1994). The Serbs and the Croats had taken action to attempt to pull out of the game with more land, more authority and less opposition, but these actions do not directly target an ethnicity, and do not seem to be completely or even mainly ethnically based tactical decisions. After such a disaster, it was evident that life and surroundings echoed the erasing of certain ethnic qualities, but there was always an ulterior motive present. Bosnia as it had existed for six centuries had to be destroyed; the fabric which wove the lives of its many peoples together torn beyond repair; the loyalty of its indigenous Serb and Croat communities to a multi-ethnic Bosnian nation subverted; its native Muslim population terrorised. The objective was to cleanse Bosnia not only of the Muslims but also of the unique and dangerous cosmopolitanism of its cities which clearly had no place in the new pure nation-states emerging from the ruins of Yugoslavia. A cleansed Bosnia could then be carved up and annexed to the national states of Greater Serbia and Greater Croatia (Lifschultz and Ali 1994). These strategies to place pressures on ethnic grounds, as to influence the crowds, came about from already existing tensions in the communities that later witnessed the true results of what they had been convinced to do, all the while perhaps still not aware of the fact that they were being utilised, that their identity was being used as an instrument to gain their numbers, their voices and their force. Particularity Prejudice Genocide of this size could not have taken place without mass involvement of the common man and abuse of already established institutes/agencies, such as the existing military forces and of course the creation of new forces for the purposes of annihilating anyone that stood in their way. All prior events including agreements and discussions, only prepared the grounds for even worse events to come. Many contemporary theories of ethnic and racial prejudice, ethnic political mobilization, and ethnic conflict emphasize structural conditions that provide a context within which attitudes and behavior toward out-groups develop (Kunovich and Hodson 2002). In this way, it is a bit easier to follow the outcome of the events, and to understand how in the midst of such chaotic circumstances, so many windows to malice are opened. The events that followed ran rampant as pretexts of hatred, diversity and fear guided the masses to direct their uncertainties and reactions to those uncertainties towar d all things that seemed to represent the historically recognised Bosnia that Europe knew. Similar conflicts to the Bosnian War arose within the same time, such as the Rwanda genocide, which provide clear examples of particularity. Rwanda was a nation whose marriage statistics, just as pre-conflict Bosnia, showed a harmonious and culturally accepting coexistence. Upon the arrival of the Belgians to Rwanda, local authority was given in exchange for Tutsi collaboration, overturning many previously governed Hutu districts (Sadowski 1998). These types of interactions promote jealousy and fear in environments where such fears had never been so prevalently manifested. Foreign intervention did not come first in the physical form, but in the form of distant involvement, influencing authority throughout ethnic enclaves in Bosnia, although leaving a like scar, to that of the Rwandan example, in the midst of the conflict. Agreements were reached, regarding or involving these particular enclaves by foreign leaders from afar, who attempted to encourage the distribution of administrativ e authority ethnically, as to prevent the nation from sliding into war. This division of Bosnia used the previously existing, or seemingly clear ethnic population divisions that existed in Bosnia in areas where notable enclaves existed, which intended to label administratively as: Bosniak, Serb or Croat. Another point of this doing was to decentralise the Bosnian government by giving ethnic groups a sense of authority in their own land. This was done by assigning districts as pertaining to one ethnic group of another, even though random review showed that certain villages could have been up to 70% Bosniak and 30% Serb and yet still designated as a village or district administrated by Serbs or municipally adopted under Republika Srpska- an example of this type of agreement is the Lisbon agreement, which was drawn up by Lord Carrington and Ambassador of Portugal, Jose Cutileiro (Ron 2000). The agreement was signed on March 18, 1992, by the three leaders of the ethnic groups, although Izbetgovic, leader of the Bosniaks, after meeting with the U.S. Ambassador, Warren Zimmerman, quickly withdrew his signature only ten days after having signed it. It is said that Izbetgovics decision to withraw his signature and renounce the agreement was influenced by the United States offer to finally intervene, viewed that he did so immediately after leaving the U.S. embassy on March 28, 1992 (Ron 2000). Even today, Bosnians ask themselves questions as to the interests behind such decisions, and wonder how their ethnicity was able to be so very discretely instrumentalised in the scheme of something that was obviously very multifaceted. One of the most targeted and still the most visibly affected aspects of that once cosmopolitan Bosnia that one recognised, are the elements of diversity that were once revered as the nations richest social resource- its cultural quality, eccentric and obvious traces of history demonstrated throughout the cities of all Bosnia Herzegovina. The countrys architecture, its buildings, bridges, monuments built by the Ottomans were the most visible, most immediately tangible signs of Bosnias otherness. These became targets of relentless artillery bombardment or straightforward demolition. As if the intent was to destroy all recorded history, libraries housing rare books and priceless manuscripts were deliberately destroyed. Hundreds of delicately designed mosques, large and small, that had stood for centuries unharmed, untouched, disappeared overnight (Lifschultz and Ali 1994). It is in this way that any and all unlikely seeming traits of Bosnia were the targets of particularity in the atro cities that took place throughout the cleansing of Bosnia Herzegovina. The particularities and stressors that factored into this conflict, were perhaps greatly influencing reasons for the masses to be shift into motion but they somehow do not come across as a great enough cause given the history prior to this conflict and the strategically devised agreements that led to the need for independence- much less the outbreaks of violence that followed. Theories of Ethnic Conflict When given a vast amount of information about a conflict, you use a sphere by which you measure the elements and the gravity, logic or even reality of the events occurred. As mentioned before the tool by which we are measuring up the events of the Bosnian Conflict, are theories of ethnic conflict. These theories provide limits and start points for possible patterns to describe a conflict of this genre and are ever growing in that they descend from fruitful tests of hypotheses that have branched from detailed research. There are two sides or clusters, if you will that theories of ethnic conflict provide us with, for views on analysis of this type of conflict: the primordialist and the instrumentalist take on things. The primordialist stance rests on explicitly attributing the cause for the events that took place as a history of ancient hatreds and prejudice. Instrumentalists negate that the direct cause of these types of conflicts could be a clear-cut question of primordial abhorrence (Blimes 2006). These paths help refine a thin line of sight for analysing this type of affair, facts and deeds fight myth and hearsay- in fact, instrumentalist refuse to accept that this could be the direct cause of antipathies. Instrumentalists point out that in many instances, ethnic groups with a history of animosity have managed to live in peace and therefore reject the ancient hatreds argument. After all, interethnic cooperation is the norm rather than the aberration between ethnic groups. Instrumentalists argue that ethnicity is merely a tool that an individual or group uses to achieve an end (Blimes 2006). Scholars have begun combining theories of ethnic conflicts with theories of civil war, in an attempt to view if either incites a greater probability in the other. The analysis proves interesting although no concrete results were extracted through any empirically tested models. Through the mentioned research, there were no greatly solidified demonstrations that ethnic fract ionalisation contributed directly to the onsite of civil war. Other scholars, not related to that particular study, conclude similarly that the link between ethnicity and civil war are relatively evident but, as of now, in no finitely tested way conclusive. The Bosnian war arose out of a familiar set of circumstances: the collapse of totalitarian control of territory producing a political void that, in turn, exposes a deep-rooted rivalry between ethnic groups leading to a struggle for control of territory ending in an attempt at violent resolution. Central to the process are the notoriously ambiguous concepts of ethnicity and nationalism (Doyon and Slack 2001). While opinions may differ, much research shares a relatively similar conclusion in that the roles of ethnicity and civil war are greatly influencing factors in terms of general dispute, and it is through the evaluation of analysis in these two theories that this essay has attempted to clarify the labelling of the conflict in Bosnia in the 1990s. Analysis Ethnicity is definitely a recurring theme in this conflict, and very rightfully so. Some academics, such as Jovanka Stojsavljevic, would say that the war in the Former Yugoslavian Republic was merely an opportunity- that old guard communists took advantage of a vulnerable moment in FRYs history to use the ideology of nationalism as their own personal ticket to increased power (1995). The important fact to remember when dealing with this type of immediate reaction, is to remember that with such a great deal of input to process, and more than enough on both sides of the scale (both supporting and negating), there is not one single response and when there is perhaps a combined answer, even that is difficult to clearly devise into a black or white response. The Bosnian war arose out of a familiar set of circumstances: the collapse of totalitarian control of territory producing a political void that, in turn, exposes a deep-rooted rivalry between ethnic groups leading to a struggle for co ntrol of territory ending in an attempt at violent resolution. Central to the process are the notoriously ambiguous concepts of ethnicity and nationalism (Doyon and Slack 2001). This conflict demonstrates a great deal of multidimensionality and it is clear that such a trait must be taken into consideration when attempting to trace a fault or pin blame. Stojsavljevics conclusion of these events gets directly to the point and immediately cancels out ethnicity as a cause for the war. The one thing it does not do is seek to locate the role of ethnicity in the controversy or to quantify ethnicity as an influence. To do so, it is important to realise the situation that Bosnia Herzegovina was in at the time. With the decentralization of political power following Titos death and trends toward democratization within republics, political leaders on all sides mobilized ethnic enclaves for political gain. Once small-scale conflicts began to develop in these ethnic enclaves, fear spread rapidly , and the mobilization of individuals in more tolerant regions became possible. Thus, regional differences in ethnic prejudice provided a foundation for the emergence and spread of ethnic conflict (Kunovich and Hodson 2002). Misdistribution of power, bad leadership, a lack of checks and balances system and utter greed brought upon by fears for loss of fortune, authority, as well as future livelihood became deciding factors and the people who were not among the few in power, were significant liabilities that needed to be made to cooperate quickly. The decision in Bosnia and Herzegovina to seek independence was one that Serbian leaders anticipated and feared. It is that fear that incited a chain reaction of domestic and international obstacles to aid that would later end in ethnic cleansing, genocide and an immense infraction on human rights. The length, in time, that these obstacles stalled the international community from intervening, would serve as the lifeline for the atrocities that took place. The more divided the nation became; the easier it became to instrumentalise historical accounts and diversity as weapons to fan the flames of fear. Many claim that the simple fact that Bosnia and Herzegovina was so ethnically fractionalised directly affected the probability for the onset of conflict and that it made for a likely place for civil war. Scholars, such as Blimes, would respond that empirical assessment of any such hypothesis, that the very existence of ethnic fractionalisation could directly, much less greatly affect the inception of civil war has not turned out any unassailable conclusions (2006). To attribute ethnic cleansing, genocide, and mass violence to ethnic fractionalisation, or even ethnicity alone, would mean that everything that took place from the late 1980s to 1995 to build up to this conflict somehow all stems from ancient hatreds or that sooner or later all nations where ethnic fractionalisation exists will have a similar fate. This way of thinking suits a primordialist view in the sphere of theories of ethnic conflict. Blimes goes into detail by mentioning that primordialists consider ancient hatreds to be the direct root of these ethnic issues, while instrumentalists view that an explanation or blame on ancient hatreds quite commonly oversimplifies conflicts that are really much deeper than can be simply explained by timeless rancour (2006). The worst genocides of modem times have not been targeted along primarily ethnic lines. Rather, the genocides within Afghanistan, Cambodia, C hina, the Soviet Union, and even, to a great extent, Indonesia and Uganda, have focused on liquidating political dissidents: to employ the emerging vocabulary, they were politicides rather than ethnicides. Indeed, the largest genocides of this century were clearly ideologically driven politicides (Sadowski 1998). This and many similar conflicts are simply much too multifaceted to ascribe all responsibility to one factor or to omit the existence of other very evident agents. Conclusion As one refines the scope of analysis a bit, it becomes more and more apparent that in order to strongly support whether or not this conflict can be looked at solely as an ethnic conflict, indeed lies in isolating and identifying the function of ethnicity and/or ethnic diversity as factors. Of the two clusters mentioned in theories of ethnic conflict, it seems an instrumentalist view is more efficient in meticulously combing through this tumultuous history with a fine toothed comb. This does not indicate that ancient hatreds did not or do not exist or that a primordialist viewpoint is completely erroneous- only that it does not convincingly represent the foundation of motive behind years of strategically planned moves that in turn yielded even more power and riches to those making the decisions (which were not those of the targeted ethnic groups). Ethnicity and ethnic diversity do not compellingly embody a basis for ethnic cleansing, genocide or mass violence. Rather, ethnic diversity serves as natural fault lines on which a society, subjected to other variables that have a direct influence on the likelihood of civil war onset, can fracture or act as a solution to collective action problems that might otherwise prevent a cohesive rebellion from forming (Blimes 2006). While it is true that ethnicity and ethnic diversity are both pervasive in the sphere of this conflict, this essay finds that the Bosnian Conflict cannot justly be labelled and viewed solely as an ethnic conflict.